Stakeholder engagement |
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Benefit distribution |
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Early programs led to few direct household benefits Projects tend to favor households with land and capital assets Concerns about rising income inequality and land stratification with poor households least likely to benefit Ethnic minorities less likely to benefit Gender differentials in access to benefits
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Knowledge enrichment |
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Little knowledge or training associated with programs Lack of use of local knowledge Targets often not met due to information barriers Little awareness of damaging practices
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Natural capital |
Improvements in soil quality (nitrogen, carbon storage) Protection from storm surge, benefits of windbreaks Biodiversity improvements dependent on species and scale Can be motivated by payments or subsidies
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Many plantations managed poorly for natural capital Some plantings inappropriate in vulnerable areas (typhoons) Some replacement of natural forests by less diverse plantations High biodiversity plantings require more land and longer rotations
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Sustainable economies |
Profitability varies, dependent on land & labor prices and subsidies Flexibility as to harvesting time Subsidies are strong motivation Certification can raise economic benefits
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Community wellbeing |
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