Assessing Social Equity in Farmer-Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) Interventions: Findings from Ghana

References

1. ↵
   1. Akaateba, M.A.

   , 2019. The politics of customary land rights transformation in peri-urban Ghana: Powers of exclusion in the era of land commodification. Land Use Policy 88:1–10.

   OpenUrl
2. ↵
   1. Amanor, K.S.

   2002. Bushfire management, culture and ecological modernisation in Ghana. IDS Bulletin 33:65–74.

   OpenUrl
3. ↵
   1. Arnold, J.E.M. and
   2. P.A. Dewees

   (eds). 1997. Farms, Trees and Farmers: Responses to Agricultural Intensification. London: Earthscan.
4. ↵
   1. Augusseau, X.,
   2. P. Nikiéma and
   3. E. Torquebiau

   . 2006. Tree biodiversity, land dynamics and farmers’ strategies on the agricultural frontier of southwestern Burkina Faso. Biodiversity and Conservation 15:613–630.

   OpenUrl
5. ↵
   1. Bayala, J.,
   2. J. Sanou,
   3. H.R. Bazie,
   4. R. Coe,
   5. A. Kalinganire and
   6. F.L. Sinclair

   . 2020. Regenerated trees in farmers’ fields increase soil carbon across the Sahel. Agroforestry Systems 94:401–15.

   OpenUrl
6. ↵
   1. Baynes, J.,
   2. J. Herbohn,
   3. C. Smith,
   4. R. Fisher and
   5. D. Bray

   . 2015. Key factors which influence the success of community forestry in developing countries. Global Environmental Change 35:226–238.

   OpenUrl
7. ↵
   1. Bernard. H.R.

   2000. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. London, UK: Sage.
8. ↵
   1. Bernard, H.R. and
   2. G.W. Ryan

   . 2010. Analyzing Qualitative Data: Systematic Approaches. London, UK: SAGE.
9. ↵
   1. Binam, J.N.,
   2. F. Place,
   3. A.A. Djalal and
   4. A. Kalinganire

   . 2017. Effects of local institutions on the adoption of agroforestry innovations: Evidence of farmer managed natural regeneration and its implications for rural livelihoods in the Sahel. Agricultural and Food Economics 5:1–28.

   OpenUrl
10. ↵
    1. Boffa, J.M.

    1999. Agroforestry parklands in sub-Saharan Africa. FAO Conservation Guide No. 34. Food and Agriculture Organisation.
11. ↵
    1. Boffa, J.M.

    2015. Opportunities and challenges in the improvement of the shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) resource and its management. Occasional paper 24. Nairobi, Kenya: World Agroforestry Centre.
12. ↵
    1. Brottem, L.

    2011. Rediscovering “terroir” in West African agroforestry parklands. Society and Natural Resources 24:553–68.

    OpenUrl
13. ↵
    1. Brown, D.R.,
    2. P. Dettmann,
    3. T. Rinaudo,
    4. H. Tefera and
    5. A. Tofu

    . 2011. Poverty alleviation and environmental restoration using the clean development mechanism: A case study from Humbo, Ethiopia. Environmental Management 48:322–333.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
14. ↵
    1. Bryman, A.

    2012. Social Research Methods. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
15. ↵
    1. Chazdon, R.L.,
    2. S.J. Wilson,
    3. E. Brondizio,
    4. M.R. Guariguata and
    5. J. Herbohn

    . 2020a. Key challenges for governing forest and landscape restoration across different contexts. Land Use Policy. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104854.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
16. ↵
    1. Chazdon, R.L.,
    2. D. Lindenmayer,
    3. M.R. Guariguata,
    4. R. Crouzeilles,
    5. J.M.R. Benayas and
    6. E.L. Chavero

    . 2020b. Corrigendum: Fostering natural regeneration on former agricultural land through economic and policy interventions. Environmental Research Letters 15:043002.

    OpenUrl
17. ↵
    1. Chomba, S.,
    2. J. Kariuki,
    3. J.F. Lund and
    4. F. Sinclair

    . 2016. Roots of inequity: How the implementation of REDD+ reinforces past injustices. Land Use Policy 50:202–213.

    OpenUrl
18. ↵
    1. Chomba, S.,
    2. F. Sinclair,
    3. P. Savadogo,
    4. M. Bourne and
    5. M. Lohbeck

    . 2020. Opportunities and constraints for using farmer-managed natural regeneration for land restoration in sub-Saharan Africa. Frontiers for Global Change. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2020.571679.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
19. ↵
    1. Colfer, C.J.P. and
    2. D. Capistrano

    (eds). 2012. The Politics of Decentralization: Forests, People and Power. London, UK: Earthscan.
20. ↵
    1. Cronkleton, P.,
    2. J.M. Pulhin and
    3. S. Saigal

    . 2012. Co-management in community forestry: How the partial devolution of management rights creates challenges for forest communities. Conservation and Society 10:91–102.

    OpenUrl
21. ↵
    1. Cronkleton, P.,
    2. Y. Artati,
    3. H. Baral,
    4. K. Paudyal,
    5. M.R. Banjade,
    6. J.L. Liu

    et al. 2017. How do property rights reforms provide incentives for forest landscape restoration? Comparing evidence from Nepal, China and Ethiopia. International Forestry Review 19:8–23.

    OpenUrl
22. ↵
    1. Davis, D.K.

    2020. The Arid Lands: History, Power, Knowledge. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
23. ↵
    1. Dietz, T.,
    2. D. Millar,
    3. S. Dittoh,
    4. F. Obeng and
    5. E. Ofori-Sarpong

    . 2004. Climate and livelihood change in north east Ghana. Pages 149–172 in (eds) A.J. Dietz, and R.R. Verhagen The Impact of Climate Change on Drylands: Environment & Policy, vol 39. Dordecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
24. ↵
    1. Djenontin, I.N.S.,
    2. L.C. Zulu and
    3. A. Ligmann-Zielinska

    . 2020. Improving representation of decision rules in LUCC-ABM: An example with an elicitation of farmers’ decision making for landscape restoration in central Malawi. Sustainability 12:5380.

    OpenUrl
25. ↵
    1. Dumenu, W.K. and
    2. W.N. Bandoh

    . 2016. Exploitation of African rosewood (Pterocarpus erinaceus) in Ghana: A situation analysis. Ghana Journal of Forestry 32:1–15.

    OpenUrl
26. 1. Edmunds, D. and
    2. E. Wollenberg

    (eds). 2003. Local Forest Management: The Impacts of Devolution Policies. London, UK: Earthscan.
27. ↵
    1. Elias, M.,
    2. D. Joshi and
    3. R. Meinzen-Dick

    . 2021. Restoration for whom, by whom? Exploring the socio-political dimensions of restoration. Ecological Restoration 39:3–15.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
28. ↵
    1. Fairhead, J. and
    2. M. Leach

    . 1996. Misreading the African Landscape: Society and Ecology in a Forest-Savanna Mosaic. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
29. ↵
    1. Fortes, M.

    1949. The Web of Kinship among the Tallensi. London, UK: Oxford University Press.
30. ↵
    1. Fortmann, L.

    1985. The tree tenure factor in agroforestry with particular reference to Africa. Agroforestry Systems 2:229–251.

    OpenUrl
31. ↵
    1. Francis, R.,
    2. Weston, P. and
    3. J. Birch

    . 2015. The social, environmental and economic benefits of farmer managed natural regeneration. World Vision Australia.
32. ↵
    1. Gann, G.D.,
    2. T. McDonald,
    3. B. Walder,
    4. J. Aronson,
    5. C.R. Nelson,
    6. J. Jonson

    et al. 2019. International principles and standards for the practice of ecological restoration. Restoration Ecology 27:S1–S46.

    OpenUrl
33. ↵
    1. Gross-Camp

    , N.I. Rodriguez, A. Martin, M. Inturias and G. Massao. 2019. The type of land we want: Exploring the limits of community forestry in Tanzania and Bolivia. Sustainability 11:1643.

    OpenUrl
34. ↵
    1. Haglund, E.,
    2. J. Ndjeunga,
    3. L. Snook and
    4. D. Pasternak

    . 2011. Dry land tree management for improved household livelihoods: Farmer managed natural regeneration in Niger. Journal of Environmental Management 92:1696–1705.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
35. ↵
    1. Hajjar, R.,
    2. J.A. Oldekop,
    3. P. Cronkleton,
    4. P. Newton,
    5. A.J.M. Russell and
    6. W. Zhou

    . 2020. A global analysis of the social and environmental outcomes of community forests. Nature Sustainability. doi:10.1038/s41893–020–00633–y.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
36. ↵
    1. Hansen, N.T.,
    2. A. Ræbild and
    3. H.H. Hansen

    . 2012. Management of trees in northern Ghana—when the approach of development organizations contradicts local practices. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods 21:241–252.

    OpenUrl
37. ↵
    1. Hart, K.

    1971. Migration and tribal identity among the Frafras of Ghana. Journal of Asian and African Studies 6:21–36.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
38. ↵
    1. Iiyama, M.,
    2. A. Derero,
    3. K. Kelemu,
    4. C. Muthuri,
    5. R. Kinuthia,
    6. E. Ayenkulu

    et al. 2017. Understanding patterns of tree adoption on farms in semi-arid and sub-humid Ethiopia. Agroforestry Systems 91:271–293.

    OpenUrl
39. ↵
    1. Kandel, M.,
    2. C. Benamba,
    3. R.S. Alare,
    4. G. Agaba and
    5. K. Schreckenberg

    . 2020. Scalable and equitable governance in farmer-managed natural regeneration. Pages 169–177 in (eds) N. Pasiecznik and C. Reij Restoring African Drylands. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Tropenbos International.
40. ↵
    1. Kansanga, M.,
    2. P. Andersen,
    3. D. Kpienbaareh,
    4. S. Mason-Renton,
    5. K. Atuoye,
    6. Y. Sano

    et al. 2019. Traditional agriculture in transition: Examining the impacts of agricultural modernization on smallholder farming in Ghana under the new Green Revolution. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 26:11–24.

    OpenUrl
41. ↵
    1. Kleeman, J.,
    2. G. Baysal,
    3. H.N.N. Buley and
    4. C. Fürst

    . 2017. Assessing driving forces of land use and land cover change by a mixedmethods approach in north-eastern Ghana, West Africa. Journal of Environmental Management 196:411–442.

    OpenUrl
42. ↵
    1. Konings, P.

    1984. Capitalist rice farming and land allocation in northern Ghana. Journal of Legal Pluralism 22:89–120.

    OpenUrl
43. ↵
    1. Krätli, S.

    2015. Valuing Variability: New Perspectives on Climate Resilience Drylands Development. IIED.
44. ↵
    1. Kull, C.A.

    2016. Bushfire in Madagascar: Natural hazard, useful tool, and change agent. Pages 143–167 In (eds) G. Bankoff and J. Christensen Natural Hazards and Peoples in the Indian Ocean World. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
45. 1. Kuusaana, E.D. and
    2. K.N. Bukari

    . 2015. Land conflicts between smallholders and Fulani pastoralists in Ghana: Evidence from the Asante Akim North District (AAND). Journal of Rural Studies 42:52–62.

    OpenUrl
46. ↵
    1. Laris, P. and
    2. D.A. Wardell

    . 2006. Good, bad or ‘necessary evil’? Reinterpreting the colonial burning experiments in the savanna landscapes of West Africa. Geographical Journal 172:271–290.

    OpenUrl
47. ↵
    1. Laris, P.,
    2. A. Jo and
    3. S.P. Wechsler

    . 2018. Effects of landscape pattern and vegetation type on the fire regime of a mesic savanna in Mali. Journal of Environmental Management 227:134–45.

    OpenUrl
48. ↵
    1. Lentz, C.

    2010. Is land inalienable? Historical and current debates on land transfers in northern Ghana. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 80:56–80.

    OpenUrl
49. ↵
    1. Libert-Amico, A. and
    2. A.M. Larson

    . 2020. Forestry decentralization in the context of global carbon priorities: New challenges for subnational governments. Frontiers for Global Change. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2020.00015.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
50. ↵
    1. Lohbeck, M.,
    2. P. Albers,
    3. L.E. Boels,
    4. F. Bongers,
    5. S. Morel,
    6. F. Sinclair

    et al. 2020. Drivers of farmer-managed natural regeneration in the Sahel: Lessons for restoration. Scientific Reports 10:15038.

    OpenUrl
51. ↵
    1. Lovett, P.

    2018. Agroforestry shea parklands of sub-Saharan Africa: Threats and solutions. LEAVES/PROFOR Background Paper. Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank.
52. ↵
    1. Lund, C.

    2008. Local Politics and Dynamics of Property in Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
53. ↵
    1. Mansourian, S.,
    2. L. Aquino,
    3. T.K. Erdmann and
    4. F. Pereira

    . 2014. A comparison of governance challenges in forest restoration in Paraguay’s privately-owned forests and Madagascar’s co-managed state forests. Forests 5:763–783.

    OpenUrl
54. 1. Mansuri, G. and
    2. V. Rao

    . 2013. Localizing development: Does participation work? Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
55. ↵
    1. Martin, A.,
    2. N. Gross-Camp,
    3. B. Kebede,
    4. S. McGuire and
    5. J. Munyarukaza

    . 2014. Whose environmental justice? Exploring local and global perspectives in a payments for ecosystem services scheme in Rwanda. Geoforum 54:167–177.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
56. ↵
    1. McClain, R.,
    2. S. Lawry,
    3. M.R. Guariguata and
    4. J. Reed

    . 2020. Toward a tenure-responsive approach to forest landscape restoration: A proposed tenure diagnostic for assessing restoration opportunities. Land Use Policy. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.11.053.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
57. ↵
    1. McDermott, M.H. and
    2. K. Schreckenberg

    . 2009. Equity in community forestry: Insights from North and South. International Forestry Review 11:157–170.

    OpenUrl
58. ↵
    1. McDermott, M.,
    2. S. Mahanty and
    3. K. Schreckenberg

    . 2013. Examining equity: A multidimensional framework for assessing equity in payments for ecosystem services. Environmental Science & Policy 33:416–427.

    OpenUrl
59. ↵
    1. Millar, D.

    2003. Forest in Northern Ghana: Local knowledge and local use of forest. Sahel-Sudan environmental research initiative. Occasional Paper No. 15. Copenhagen: Sahel-Sudan Environmental Research Initiative.
60. ↵
    1. Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources

    . 2016. Tree Tenure and Benefit Sharing Framework in Ghana. Accra, Ghana.
61. ↵
    1. Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development

    2017. District Profile, Talensi District Assembly (2017–21). Ghana.
62. ↵
    1. Moore, E.,
    2. T. van Dijk,
    3. A. Asenga,
    4. F. Bongers,
    5. F. Sambalino,
    6. E. Veenendaal

    et al. 2020. Species selection and management under farmer managed natural regeneration in Dodoma, Tanzania. Frontiers for Global Change 3:563364.

    OpenUrl
63. ↵
    1. Nash, R. and
    2. C. Luttrell

    . 2006. Forest Policy and Environment Programme: Grey literature crisis to context: the fuelwood debate. UK: ODI Forest Policy and Environment Programme.
64. ↵
    1. Nunan, F.,
    2. M. Menton,
    3. C. McDermott and
    4. K. Schreckenberg

    . 2018. Governing for ecosystem health and human wellbeing. Pages 159–73 in (eds) K. Schreckenberg, G. Mace, and M. Poudyal Ecosystem Services and Poverty Alleviation: Trade-Offs and Governance. London, UK: Routledge.
65. ↵
    1. Oldekop, J.A.,
    2. G. Holmes,
    3. W.E. Harris and
    4. K.L. Evans

    . 2016. A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas. Conservation Biology 30:133–141.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
66. ↵
    1. Pascual, U.,
    2. J. Phelps,
    3. E. Garmendia,
    4. K. Brown,
    5. E. Corbera,
    6. A. Martin

    et al. 2014. Social equity matters in payments for ecosystem services. Bioscience 64:1027–1036.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
67. ↵
    1. Pehou, C.H.,
    2. B. Djoudi,
    3. B. Vinceti and
    4. M. Elias

    . 2020. Intersecting and dynamic gender rights to néré, a food tree species in Burkina Faso. Journal of Rural Studies 76:230–39.

    OpenUrl
68. ↵
    1. Poudyal, M.

    2011. Chiefs and trees: Tenures and incentives in the management and use of two multipurpose tree species in agroforestry parklands in Northern Ghana. Society and Natural Resources 24:1063–1077.

    OpenUrl
69. 1. International Pty Ltd

    . 2020. NVivo v12 (released in March 2020) https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo-qualitative-dataanalysis-software/home.
70. ↵
    1. Reij, C. and
    2. R. Winterbottom

    . 2015. Scaling up regreening: Six steps to success: a practical approach to forest and landscape restoration. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.
71. ↵
    1. Reij, C. and
    2. D. Garrity

    . 2016. Scaling up farmer-managed natural regeneration in Africa to restore degraded landscapes. Biotropica 48:834–843.

    OpenUrl
72. ↵
    1. Ribot, J.

    2004. Waiting for democracy: The politics of choice in natural resource decentralization. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.
73. ↵
    1. Rinaudo, T.

    2007. The development of farmer managed natural regeneration. LEISA 23:32–34.

    OpenUrl
74. ↵
    1. Robbins, P.

    2011. Political Ecology: A Critical Introduction, 2nd edition. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
75. ↵
    1. Schreckenberg, K.

    1999. Products of a managed landscape: Nontimber forest products in the parklands of the Bassila region, Benin. Global Ecology and Biogeography 8:279–289.

    OpenUrl
76. ↵
    1. Shepherd, G.

    1992. Managing Africa’s tropical dry forests: A review of indigenous methods. London, UK: Overseas Development Institute.
77. ↵
    1. Smale M.,
    2. G. Tappan and
    3. C. Reij

    . 2018. Farmer-manged restoration of agroforestry parklands in Niger. Pages 19–34 in (eds) F. Wouterse and O. Badlane Fostering Transformation and Growth in Niger’s Agricultural Sector. The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
78. ↵
    1. Soeters, S.,
    2. R. Weesie and
    3. A. Zoomers

    . 2017. Agricultural investments and farmer-Fulani pastoralist conflict in West African drylands: A northern Ghanaian case study. Sustainability 9:2063.

    OpenUrl
79. ↵
    1. Tonah, S.

    , 2002. Fulani pastoralists, indigenous farmers and the contest for land in Northern Ghana. Africa Spectrum 37:43–59.

    OpenUrl
80. ↵
    1. Tougiani, A.,
    2. C. Guero and
    3. T. Rinaudo

    . 2009. Community mobilisation for improved livelihoods through tree crop management in Niger. GeoJournal 74:377–389.

    OpenUrl
81. ↵
    1. Ubink, J.A. and
    2. J.F. Quan

    . 2008. How to combine tradition and modernity? Regulating customary land management in Ghana. Land Use Policy 25:198–213.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
82. ↵
    1. van Noordwijk, M.,
    2. V. Gitz,
    3. P.A. Minang,
    4. S. Dewi,
    5. B. Leimona,
    6. L. Duguma

    et al. 2020. People-centric nature-based land restoration through agroforestry: A typology. Land 9:251.

    OpenUrl
83. ↵
    1. Wardell, D.A.,
    2. A. Reenberg and
    3. C. Tøttrup

    . 2003. Historical footprints in contemporary land use systems: Forest cover changes in savannah woodlands in the Sudano-Sahelian zone. Global Environmental Change 13:235–254.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
84. 1. Wardell, D.A.

    , 2005. Moving the boundaries of forest and land use history: the case of Upper East Region in northern Ghana. Pages 168–194 in (eds) Q. Gausset, M.A. Whyte and T. Birch-Thomsen Beyond Territory and Scarcity: Social, Cultural and Political Aspects of Conflicts on Natural Resource Management. Uppsala, Sweden: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
85. ↵
    1. Wardell, D.A.

    2020. Groundnuts and headwater protection reserves: Tensions in colonial forestry policy and practice in the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast. Pages 357–401 in (eds) V. Damodaran and R. D’ Souza Commonwealth Forestry and Environmental History: Empire, Forests and Colonial Environments in Africa, the Caribbean, South Asia and New Zealand. Delhi, India: Primus Books.
86. ↵
    1. Weston, P.,
    2. R. Hong and
    3. V. Morrison

    . 2013. End-of-phase evaluation report. World Vision Australia/Ghana.
87. ↵
    1. Weston, P.,
    2. R. Hong,
    3. C. Kaboré and
    4. C.A. Kull

    . 2015. Farmer-managed natural regeneration enhances rural livelihoods in dryland West Africa. Environmental Management 55:1402–1417.

    OpenUrl
88. ↵
    1. Woodley, S.,
    2. B. Bertzky,
    3. N. Crawhill,
    4. N. Dudley,
    5. J.M. Londoño,
    6. K. MacKinnon

    et al. 2012. Meeting Aichi Target 11: what does success look like for protected area systems? Parks 18:23–36.

    OpenUrl
89. ↵
    1. World Vision Australia

    . 2019. Evaluation brief: Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) project, Ghana. fmnrhub.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Ghana-2018-Talensi-FMNREvaluation-Brief.pdf.