Article Figures & Data
Figures
Brooktrout. Chambers W. and R. Chambers. 1881. Encyclopaedia—A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott & Co. The Florida Center for Instructional Technology, fcit.usf.edu.
Tables
1. Maintain diversity and redundancy
When confronted with disturbance, the existence of functional redundancy means that, while some components of the system may be lost, those that remain compensate for the loss. When components within the same functional group exhibit diversity in their response to a certain disturbance, redundancy is considered even more valuable. Diversity and redundancy provide options for responding to change and confronting uncertainty, thereby building resilience.
2. Manage connectivity
Connectivity in SES refers to both the nature and strength of interactions between system components. Connectivity can positively or negatively influence a system. High connectivity is considered to be important in aiding recovery following a disturbance but disturbance also spreads faster in highly connected systems. Therefore, the key is managing an appropriate level of connectivity given the specific context of the system.
3. Manage slow variables and feedbacks
Managing slowly changing variables and positive and negative feedbacks that influence the configuration of a system is critical to avoid crossing a threshold. Feedbacks that maintain desirable system configurations should be strengthened and the key slow variables should be monitored for their proximity to thresholds. Additionally, governance structures capable of effectively responding to monitoring data must be established.
4. Foster CAS thinking
Although fostering CAS thinking may not directly enhance the resilience of a system, it does contribute to building it. Considering SES as CAS requires disengaging from steady-state reductionist thinking and accepting unpredictability, uncertainty, and variability.Changing how complex systems are understood is the first step in altering behaviour in favour of practices that build resilience.
5. Encourage learning and experimentation
Uncertainty and the dynamic nature of complex SES require that learning remain an ongoing part of managing a system to enhance resilience. Potential mechanisms for encouraging learning and experimentation include adaptive management, adaptive co-management, and adaptive governance. Also highlighted in these approaches is the importance of knowledge sharing among actors and across scales.
6. Broaden participation
Engaging relevant stakeholders in the management of SES builds resilience by bringing together diverse types and sources of knowledge. Stakeholder engagement enhances capacity for collective action through building a shared understanding and improving trust and legitimacy. However, participation of all relevant stakeholders in all stages of management is not always feasible or desirable. Broad participation is particularly useful when management needs and priorities are being debated and determined.
7. Promote polycentric governance systems
Polycentric governance helps ensure that problems are addressed at the appropriate scale, by the right individuals. Polycentric governance enhances resilience by improving connectivity, creating modularity, enabling broader levels of participation and providing opportunities for learning and experimentation, improving potential for response diversity, and by building redundancy that can minimize and correct governance errors.
- Table 2.
Conceptual framework illustrating the potential for Biggs et al.'s (2012) principles for building resilience in SES to inform the phases of the ecological restoration process and outcomes on the landscape.
General Phases of Ecological Restoration Process Restoration Outcomes Problem identification Defining goals and objectives Designing a restoration plan Implementation Monitoring and evaluation Ecological outcomes Social outcomes Principles for Building Resilience in SES Key SES properties to be managed Maintain diversity and redundancy Manage connectivity Manage slow variables and feedbacks Key attributes of the governance system Foster CAS thinking Encourage learning and experimentation Broaden participation Promote polycentric governance systems - Table 3.
Criteria for judging the presence of principles for building resilience (Biggs et al. 2012) in the general phases of ecological restoration process.
Principle Criteria Examples Maintain diversity and redundancy Diversity of system components
Refers to the variety of elements in a system such as species and landscape patches, as well as the balance, or the proportion of each element, and how different those elements are from one another.
Functional redundancy
Property of a system describing the presence of multiple components capable of contributing in equivalent ways to a particular function.
Response diversity
The range of reactions or responses that components contributing to the same function have to change and disturbance.
A variety of native species that complement the surrounding landscape are included in riparian planting plans.
Live stakes, live fascines, and seeding are all used for the purpose of bank stabilization and erosion control.
Project funding is reliant on more than one source.
Manage connectivity Appropriate structure of interactions between system components
Pertains to links between system components both in terms of presence or absence of links as well as the distribution of links within a system.
Appropriate strength of interactions between system components
Refers to the intensity of the connections between system components.
Landowners are educated about the importance of maintaining a riparian buffer to reduce fragmentation of the riparian corridor.
Regular contact with relevant stakeholders is maintained throughout the duration of the restoration project to provide updates and receive feedback.
Manage slow variables and feedbacks Feedbacks are managed appropriately
Feedbacks that maintain desirable system configurations are strengthened and those that perpetuate undesirable configurations are disrupted.
Key slow variables are monitored
Slow variables such as soil composition, legal systems, and values that determine the underlying structure of SES are monitored in terms of their proximity to thresholds.
Bioengineering is used over hard-engineering and where possible, hard-engineered structures are replaced with more natural solutions.
Changing attitudes are capitalized on by working with landowners to fence cattle out of creeks and/or restore a natural buffer.
Foster CAS thinking Holistic approaches are emphasized
Refers to approaches that look at the system as a whole including interactions with scales above and below the focal scale.
Unpredictability, uncertainty, and variability are accepted
Plans and decisions are made with the acknowledgement that change and surprise are inevitable and that solutions are context dependent. Restoration is adaptive to changing conditions.
Problem identification involves looking beyond the reach scale to address causes, rather than symptoms, of problems.
Goals and objectives focus on restoring ecosystem processes and functions rather than a specific historic or static state.
Encourage learning and experimentation Willingness to experiment
Openness to actively manipulating certain SES processes and structures in novel ways to observe and evaluate outcomes.
Knowledge sharing among actors and across scales
Knowledge shared at and beyond the focal scale.
Collaborative and long-term monitoring
Long-term collection of information about changes in SES carried out by several parties, not just specialist agencies.
Different species are experimented with for stabilizing banks to see what is most effective in a particular situation.
Restoration outcomes are shared through social media and traditional mediums to reach a wide audience across scales.
As part of a monitoring effort, anglers are encouraged to record and share information about fish species caught, as well as, any notable changes in the condition of the aquatic ecosystem.
Broaden participation Relevant stakeholders are actively engaged
Engagement of those who are actively interested in, directly impacted by, or are able to provide applicable local or scientific knowledge to a restoration initiative. Depending on the context, engagement can vary greatly from informing stakeholders of plans and activities to inclusion in all stages of the restoration process.
Diverse types and sources of knowledge are brought together
Different types and sources of knowledge are welcomed and considered including local or experiential knowledge.
Community members are invited to attend public meetings or open houses and are encouraged to ask questions about, and provide comment on, restoration plans and alternatives.
Partnerships are formed between research institutions, conservation organizations, industry, and others to explore potential solutions to identified problems.
Promote polycentric governance systems Multiple governing authorities at different scales
Deliberation and decision-making among multiple groups at different scales with various sources of authority, thereby allowing decision making to match the scale of the problem.
Governance units have horizontal linkages
Refers to governance units' links with others at the same scale on common issues.
Governance units have vertical linkages
Refers to governance units' nesting within, and linkages with, scales above and below the focal scale.
A non-governmental organization, a Conservation Authority representative, and a landowner discuss and make decisions on the details of a small-scale restoration project on private property.
Information and experiences are shared with community organizations in neighbouring watersheds.
The organization leading a restoration initiative seeks advice from provincial and/or federal agencies as required.
- Table 4.
Results of the assessment of the Stream Rehabilitation: From Form to Function Training Program in relation to social-ecological resilience. The degree of magnitude of the principles is conveyed through the numbers 0 (absent), 1 (present), and 2 (emphasized in at least one instance).
General Phases Of Ecological Restoration Process Problem identification Defining goals and objectives Designing a restoration plan Implementation Monitoring and evaluation Principles for Building Resilience in SES Maintain diversity and redundancy 2 2 2 1 2 Manageconnectivity 2 2 2 1 2 Manage slow variables and feedbacks 1 2 1 0 2 Foster CAS thinking 2 2 2 1 2 Encourage learning and experimentation 2 2 2 2 2 Broaden participation 2 2 2 2 2 Promote polycentric governance systems 1 1 2 2 1 - Table 5.
Overview of the evaluation of the three restoration initiatives in relation to social-ecological resilience. The degree of magnitude of the principles is conveyed through the numbers 0 (absent), 1 (present), and 2 (emphasized in at least one instance). NA = not assessed, ΝΑΤΑ = not able to assess.
General Phases of Ecological Restoration Process Restoration Outcomes Problem identification Defining goals and objectives Designing a restoration plan Implementation Monitoring and evaluation Ecological outcomes Social outcomes 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Principles for Building Resilience in SES Key SES properties to be managed Maintain diversity and redundancy 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 2 2 NA NA NA Manage connectivity 1 1 1 0 2 2 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 1 2 NATA NATA 2 NA NA NA Manage slow variables and feedbacks 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 NATA NATA NATA NA NA NA Key attributes of the governance system Foster CAS thinking 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 NA NA NA 0 0 0 Encourage learning and experimentation 1 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 NA NA NA 2 1 2 Broaden participation 1 1 1 0 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 NA NA NA 2 2 1 Promote polycentric governance systems 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 2 NA NA NA 2 0 1
In this issue
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- Article
- Abstract
- Evolution of Perspectives in Ecological Restoration
- The Emergence of Social-Ecological Resilience in Thinking and Practice
- A Framework to Incorporate Resilience Thinking in Ecological Restoration
- Applying the Framework to Assess Resilience Thinking and Practice: A Case Study
- Discussion
- Conclusions
- Acknowledgments
- References
- Figures & Data
- Info & Metrics
- References