Abstract
The presence of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and non-native invasive plants at high densities can significantly delay or even completely stall successional processes in urbanized northern Piedmont old-fields and floodplains. Such areas may require intervention in the form of active tree planting to renew forest succession. I report on the creation and subsequent stewardship of 2 forest restoration plantings established by the Pennypack Ecological Restoration Trust 2 decades ago in the Pennypack Preserve, a private natural area in the northern Piedmont Uplands northeast of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. While these plantings now appear to be on a trajectory toward becoming forest, achieving that status required a post-planting stewardship strategy that developed over many years and that the Trust has adapted for the management of its newer reforestation projects. My experiences at Pennypack Preserve suggest that woodlands developing from such plantings must grow for at least 25 yr before the trees achieve a stature resistant to deer damage and their canopies cast shade deep enough to suppress the growth of sun-loving invasive plants. Routine maintenance is required for this entire period. Restorationists must recognize that re-establishing forest ecosystems in areas with dense deer and invasive plant populations is a difficult, complex, and expensive undertaking; success is unlikely without a long-term commitment to ongoing stewardship.
